| 1 | brain | whoa...the mind is THERE! |
| 2 | brain regions | megascopic |
| 3 | brain cells (neurons) | microscopic |
| 4 | neurotransmitters | between neurons |
| 5 | receptors | in neural membrane |
| 6 | second messengers | inside neuron |
| 7 | gene regulators | inside nucleus |
Equipment:
| 1 | bodies | human & animal |
| 2 | paper | for anatomical drawings |
| 3 | microscopes | ... |
| 4 | heavy chemicals | stains to trace nerves |
| 5 | drugs | random discovery-->bioengineered |
| 6 | electrical gear | voltage clamps, EEG |
| 8 | X-rays/nuclear magnetism | CAT, MRI,3D molecular imaging [X-ray crystallography/protein NMR] |
| 9 | bioinformatic computer systems | automated gene/protein sequencing |
(note: brain technology has long been restricted to highly trained researchers. However, we are approaching the age of inexpensive noninvasive imaging and PC-based neural nets and brain models. EEG and ANS monitoring equipment is already available to hobbyists, and $1 MRIs, gene chips, and MBIs (mind-brain interfaces) are on the horizon.)
Timeline:
| dark blue=anatomy of brain | gray=technology |
| light blue=microanatomy of neuron | orange=observation of behavior |
| pink=drugs, transmitters | purple=study of consciousness |
| green=DNA, genes | yellow=holism, emergence |
| -1700 | Imhotep (Egypt) | first use of word “brain,” with description of distal symptoms of brain damage from 30 clinical cases |
| -500 | Alcmaeon of Crotona | locates vision and senses in localized brain regions |
| -370 | Hippocrates | locates epilepsy, sensation, all mental processes in brain |
| -360 | Plato | locates mental processes in brain |
| -350 | Aristotle | describes memory formation as the association of simple ideas (mistakenly thinks thought occurs in heart) |
| -300 | Herophilus of Alexandria | father of anatomy, locates human intelligence in brain, distinguished sensory and motor nerves, first anatomical drawings |
| -280 | Erasistratus of Chios | describes origin of nerves in brain, divisions of the brain |
| -150 | Poseidonus of Byzantium | reported effects of localized brain damage (though incorrect) |
| 177 | Galen | localized mental processes in solid brain matter (not ventricles), traced sensory nerve system |
| 1021 | Ibn al-Haytham (Iraq) | discovers that vision occurs in brain, not eyes |
| 1504 | Leonardo da Vinci | modern anatomical drawing, wax injection of ventricles |
| 1543 | Andreas Vesalius | father of modern anatomy, realistic drawings |
| 1550 | Bartolomeo Eustachio | locates origin of optic nerves in brain |
| 1590 | Zacharias Janssen | invents the compound microscope |
| 1611 | Lazarus Riverius | describes impaired states of consciousness |
| 1621 | Robert Burton | describes depression |
| 1637 | Descartes | proposes that mind+body interact in brain |
| 1665 | Robert Hooke | develops microscopes |
| 1673 | Joseph DuVerney | performs experimental ablation in pigeons |
| 1684 | Raymond Vieussens | uses boiling oil to harden the brain |
| 1690 | Locke | proposes that mind is a blank slate that develops through sense data--eliminates a lot of nonscientific psychological BS, but ignores DNA |
| 1695 | Humphrey Ridley | anatomy text -- first describes peduncles, mamillary bodies, etc |
| 1709 | George Berkeley | describes how concepts like distance are constructs of the brain, based on past experience |
| 1717 | Antony van Leeuwenhoek | describes nerve fiber in cross section |
| 1740 | Emanuel Swedenborg | theorizes motor cortex map, neurons, neuroendocrine system, etc -- ideas ignored b/c not a professor |
| 1749 | David Hartley | the first English work using the word "psychology" |
| 1755 | J.B. Le Roy | uses electroconvulsive therapy for mental illness |
| 1760 | Charles Lorry | demonstrates that damage to the cerebellum affects motor coordination |
| 1772 | John Walsh | conducts experiments on torpedo (electric) fish |
| 1781 | Kant | argues we are born with built-in templates of a priori knowledge (more neuroscientifically sound than Locke) |
| 1791 | Luigi Galvani | discovers nervous system = electrical |
| 1800 | Franz Joseph Gall | proposes that brain has special regions for all mental functions, even emotion |
| 1800 | Humphrey Davy | synthesizes nitrous oxide |
| 1801 | Adam Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner | crystalizes opium and obtains morphine |
| 1809 | Johann Christian Reil | uses alcohol to harden the brain |
| 1809 | Luigi Rolando | uses galvanic current to stimulate cortex |
| 1811 | Julien Jean Legallois | discovers respiratory center in medulla |
| 1812 | Benjamin Rush | father of american psychiatry, promotes asylums, treatment for alcoholism |
| 1820 | Johann Shweigger | invents galvanometer (precursor to voltage clamps, EEGs to study neurons) |
| 1822 | Pierre Flourens | locates movement in cerebellum, shows brain has regions for mental functions but NOT memory: finds that memory is distributed; also describes ablation for studying behavior |
| 1825 | Jean Baptiste Bouillaud | presents cases of loss of speech after frontal lesions |
| 1825 | Robert B. Todd | discusses the role of the cerebral cortex in mentation, corpus striatum in movement and midbrain in emotion |
| 1826 | Johannes Muller | proposes theory of "specific nerve energies" (early notion of electrical transmission by nerves) |
| 1827 | E. Merck & Company | markets morphine |
| 1832 | Justus von Liebig | discovers chloral hydrate |
| 1832 | Jean Pierre Robiquet | isolates codeine |
| 1832 | Sir Charles Wheatstone | invents the stereoscope |
| 1833 | Philipp L. Geiger | isolates atropine |
| 1836 | Marc Dax | descrives effects on speech from left hemisphere damage |
| 1836 | Gabriel Gustav Valentin | identifies neuron nucleus and nucleolus |
| 1838 | Eduard Zeis | studies dreams in people who are blind |
| 1838 | Robert Remak | suggests that nerve fiber and nerve cell are joined |
| 1838 | Jean Esquirol | promotes asylums |
| 1839 | Theodor Schwann, Mattias Jakob Schleiden | discovers CELLS, which make up all living things |
| 1840 | Adolph Hannover | uses chromic acid to harden nervous tissue |
| 1842 | Crawford W. Long | uses ether on man |
| 1847 | James Young Simpson | uses chloroform anesthesia |
| 1848 | John Harlow | patient Phineas Gage loses moral judgment with damage to ventromedial cortex |
| 1849 | Hermann von Helmholtz | measures speed of frog nerve impulses= 90 feet per second, slowly actively propagated |
| 1850 | Emil Du Bois Reymond | invents nerve galvanometer |
| 1853 | William Benjamin Carpenter | proposes "sensory ganglion" (thalamus) as seat of consciousness |
| 1855 | Bartolomeo Panizza | shows the occipital lobe is essential for vision |
| 1855 | Richard Heschl | describes the transverse gyri in the temporal lobe (Heschl's gyri) |
| 1856 | Albrecht von Graefe | describes homonymous hemianopia |
| 1859 | Darwin | describes how humans evolved from animals |
| 1860 | Gustav Theodor Fechner | develops "Fechner's law"--intensity of perception is logarithm of sense stimuli (i.e. progressively less sensitive) |
| 1860 | Albert Niemann | purifies cocaine |
| 1864 | Pierre Paul Broca | describes how expressive (speech) aphasia is caused by frontal lobe damage |
| 1865 | Gregor Mendel | descrobes jpw hereditary information is passed in units (genes) |
| 1867 | Theodore Meynert | performs histologic analysis of cerebral cortex |
| 1873 | Gustav Fritsch, Eduard Hitzig | shows that a dog moves when motor cortex stimulated |
| 1873 | Camillo Golgi | discovers silver nitrate staining of nerves, used by Cajal (below) |
| 1874 | Roberts Bartholow | electrically stimulates human cortical tissue |
| 1875 | Richard Caton | records electrical activity from the brain |
| 1878 | Paul Broca | publishes work on the "great limbic lobe" |
| 1878 | Harmon Northrop Morse | synthesized acetaminophen |
| 1878 | Claude Bernard | describes nerve/muscle blocking action of curare |
| 1879 | Carl Wernicke | sensory aphasia caused by temporal lobe damage |
| 1879 | Wilhelm Wundt | sets up lab devoted to study human behavior |
| 1879 | Mathias Duval | introduces an improved method of embedding tissue using collodion |
| 1879 | William Crookes | invents the cathode ray tube |
| 1881 | Hermann Munk | reports on visual abnormalities after occipital lobe ablation in dogs |
| 1883 | Emil Kraepelin | coins the terms neuroses and psychoses, discovers schizophrenia |
| 1885 | Paul Ehrlich | notes that intravenous dye does not stain brain tissue : blood-brain barrier |
| 1885 | Hermann Ebbinghaus | determines that people can memorize 7 nonsense words one session, forget most in 1 hour (short-term), rest in 1 month (long-term) |
| 1885 | Carl Weigert | introduces hematoxylin to stain myelin |
| 1889 | Santiago Ramon y Cajal | describes how brain = network of unique neurons which fire in one direction |
| 1890 | John Hughlings Jackson | describes how temporal seizures elicit dreamy states |
| 1890 | William James | describes how memory can be short-term, long-term, habitual, or autonomic (unconscious) |
| 1895 | William His | first uses the term hypothalamus, dendrite |
| 1895 | Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen | invents the X ray |
| 1895 | Heinrick Quincke | performs lumbar puncture to study cerebrospinal fluid |
| 1897 | Felix Hoffmann | synthesizes aspirin |
| 1897 | Karl Ferdinand Braun | invents the oscilloscope |
| 1897 | Ferdinand Blum | uses formaldehyde as brain fixative |
| 1899 | Francis Gotch | describes a "refractory phase" between nerve impulses |
| 1900 | Georg Muller, Alfons Pilzecker | longterm memory blocked by disruption within 1 hour |
| 1900 | Sigmund Freud | describes mental illnesses as unconscious neurobiological processes, observed through dreams, free association, slips |
| 1902 | Julius Bernstein | calculates nerve impulse = 70 millivolt ionic shift across membrane of neuron |
| 1903 | Ivan Pavlov | shows in dogs hows training creates direct connections between sense and motor nerves |
| 1905 | John Newport Langley | introduces the concept of receptor molecules , describes "parasympathetic nervous system" – |
| 1906 | Charles Sherrington | cat reflexes = senses integrated by excitatory/inhibitory interneurons to single motor output |
| 1907 | Ross Granville Harrison | describes tissue culture methods |
| 1908 | Richard Goldschmidt | neurons in animals are always in the same place |
| 1908 | Victor Alexander Haden Horsley,Robert Henry Clarke | design stereotaxic instrument |
| 1908 | Willem Einthoven | makes string galvanometer recordings from the vagus nerve |
| 1909 | Harvey Cushing | first to electrically stimulate human sensory cortex |
| 1911 | George Barger,Henry Dale | discover norepinephrine |
| 1913 | Edwin Ellen Goldmann | finds blood brain barrier, impermeable to large molecules |
| 1913 | Santiago Ramon y Cajal | develops gold chloride mercury stain to show astrocytes |
| 1913 | Walter Samuel Hunter | devises delayed response test |
| 1914 | Henry H. Dale | isolates acetylcholine |
| 1915 | J.G. Dusser De Barenne | describes activity of brain after strychnine application |
| 1915 | Thomas Hunt Morgan | each gene in fruit fly is located in certain place on chromosomes |
| 1919 | Gordon Morgan Holmes | localizes vision to striate area |
| 1919 | Walter E. Dandy | introduces air encephalography |
| 1920 | Stephen Walter Ranson | demonstrates connections between the hypothalamus and pituitary |
| 1920 | Otto Loewi, Henry Dale | fluid from frog vagus nerve directly slows heart of another frog |
| 1921 | Hermann Rorschach | develops the inkblot test |
| 1921 | John Augustus Larsen, Leonard Keeler | develop the polygraph |
| 1927 | Chester William Darrow | studies galvanic skin reflex |
| 1928 | Philip Bard | suggests the neural mechanism of rage is in the diencephalon |
| 1928 | Walter Rudolph Hess | reports "affective responses" to hypothalamic stimulation |
| 1928 | Lord Edgar Douglas Adrian | nerve impulses are all identical, with 1 millisecond upstroke + downstroke |
| 1928 | John Fulton | observes sounds of blood flowing over the human visual cortex |
| 1929 | Walter B. Cannon | coins the term homeostasis |
| 1929 | Hans Berger | first human electroencephalogram |
| 1929 | Karl Lashley | removing parts of rat brains does not eliminate memory |
| 1930 | Carlyle Jacobsen | frontal lobe in monkeys controls short-term memory |
| 1931 | Ulf Svante von Euler,J.H. Gaddum | discover substance P |
| 1932 | Smith, Kline | first amphetamine, Benzedrine |
| 1932 | Max Knoll, Ernst Ruska | invent the electron microscope |
| 1932 | Jan Friedrich Tonnies | develops multichannel ink writing EEG machine, differential amplifier |
| 1933 | Ralph Waldo Gerard | describes first experimental evoked potentials |
| 1934 | S. Howard Bartley | performs studies on cortical visual evoked potentials in rabbits |
| 1935 | Frederic Bremer | uses cerveau isole preparation to study sleep |
| 1936 | Egas Moniz | publishes work on the first human frontal lobotomy |
| 1936 | Walter Freeman | performs first lobotomy in the United States |
| 1936 | Wade Marshall, Wilder Penfield | sensory nerves connect to neurons arranged in shape of body |
| 1937 | James Papez | describes limbic circuit, visceral theory of emotion |
| 1937 | Heinrich Kluver, Paul Bucy | describe bilateral temporal lobectomies |
| 1938 | Albert Hofmann | synthesizes LSD |
| 1938 | Ugo Cerletti, Lucino Bini | treat human patients with electroshock |
| 1939 | Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley | nerve impulse of squid = 110 millivolts |
| 1942 | Stephen Kuffler | develops the single nerve muscle fiber preparation |
| 1943 | John Raymond Brobeck | describes hypothalamic hyperphasia |
| 1948 | Wilder Penfield | elicits memories/auras from 8% patients with temporal lobe stimuli |
| 1948 | Jerzy Kornorski | neuron voltage drops after excitation (refractory period) |
| 1949 | Giuseppi Moruzzi, Horace Winchell Magoun | discover reticular activating system: cutting a cat's sense nerves does not affect wakefulness, but cuttin RAS does |
| 1949 | John Cade | discovers that lithium is an effective treatment for bipolar depression |
| 1949 | Kenneth Cole | develops the voltage clamp |
| 1949 | D.O. Hebb | reverbatory circuits are responsible for short-term memory |
| 1949 | CP Duncan | longterm memory blocked by seizures within 1 hour |
| 1950 | Steven Kuffler | retinal cells signal contrast, not brightness |
| 1950 | Vernon Mountcastle | place cells = cortical neurons that respond to stimuli from certain directions |
| 1950 | B.F. Skinner, Jerome Bruner | pigeon training creates direct connections between sense and motor nerves |
| 1950 | Eugene Roberts, J. Awapara | independently identify GABA in the brain |
| 1950 | Henri Laborit | antihistamine chlorpromazine tranquilizes patients, also antipsychotic, with Parkinsonism side-effect |
| 1951 | John Eccles | neurotransmitters can modulate neuron potential (excite to -55mV or inhibit to +75mV) |
| 1952 | Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley | describes action potential in mathematical terms, by using voltage clamp on squid neurons |
| 1953 | Eugene Aserinski , Nathaniel Kleitman | describe rapid eye movements (REM) during sleep |
| 1953 | H. Kluver, E. Barrera | introduce Luxol fast blue MBS stain |
| 1953 | James Watson, Francis Crick | discover double helix of DNA, with 4 nucleotides=copying mechanism |
| 1954 | James Olds | describes rewarding effects of hypothalamic stimulation |
| 1954 | John Lilly | invents the "isolation tank" |
| 1955 | Kandel, Purpura | LSD increases (not stops) serotonin inhibition of visual cortex exposed to flashes of light |
| 1956 | DW Woolley, EN Shaw | LSD stops serotonin contractions of rat uterus |
| 1956 | Rita Levi Montalcini, Stanley Cohen | isolate and purify nerve growth factor |
| 1956 | L. Leksell | uses ultrasound to examine the brain |
| 1957 | Brenda Milner, William Scoville | H.M. hippocampectomy, loss of long-term memory encoding |
| 1958 | Harry Harlow | monkeys isolated from mother devastated behaviorally, partially reversed by cloth-covered wooden dummy and a few hours with normal infant monkey |
| 1958 | Arvid Carlsson | discovers dopamine in brain, lack causes Parkinsonism, L-Dopa causes schizoid |
| 1958 | Haloperidol introduced as a neuroleptic | |
| 1959 | David Hubel, Torsten Wiesel | visual thalamus responds to contrast, visual cortex responds to contours with specific orientation |
| 1959 | P. Karlson,M. Lusher | describe pheromones |
| 1960 | Louis Flexner | protein inhibitors block consolidation during and shortly after learning, but not short-term memeory |
| 1960 | Geoffrey Watkins | GA is main transmitter, with 2 hippocampal receptors, rapid AMPA depolarizes cell 20mV-->opens NMDA-->Ca+-->kinase-->additional AMPA receptors |
| 1960 | Aaron Beck | cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) = short-term psychological treatment |
| 1961 | Robert Doty | classical conditioning by stimulus to dog visual cortex and motor cortex |
| 1961 | Earl Sutherland | describes how cells may learn from environment: epinephrine at metabotropic receptors on fat/muscle membrane-->binds adenylyl cyclase which makes 1000 molecules of cAMP for minutes second-messenger changes cell |
| 1961 | Brenner and Crick | triplets of 4 nucleotides yield 20 amino acids |
| 1962 | Eldon Foltz | performs the first cingulotomy to treat chronic pain |
| 1962 | Francois Jacob, Jacques Monod | discover how genes are switched on/off: regulatory gene-->regulatory protein-->(in absence of lactose) binds to promoter-->frees effector gene-->protein/enzymes |
| 1965 | Ronald Melzack,Patrick D. Wall | gate control theory of pain |
| 1966 | Ed Evarts, Robert Wurtz, Michael Goldberg | single cell recordings from behaving and attentive monkeys |
| 1968 | Ed Krebs | cAMP-->binds regulatory units on protein kinase A, freeing catalytic units to phosphorylate proteins |
| 1969 | D.V. Reynolds | describes the analgesic effect of electrical stimulation of the periaqueductal gray |
| 1969 | Bernard Katz | nerve impulse opens voltage-gated ion channel at synapse, releasing neurotransmitters |
| 1970 | Paul Greengard | dopamine receptor in brain-->cAMP, activates protein kinase |
| 1970 | Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger | rapid DNA sequencing, recombinant DNA (snip out gene, clone it, stitch to bacterial DNA) |
| 1971 | John O’Keefe | place cells in hippocampus respond to any sense from certain direction |
| 1972 | Godfrey N. Hounsfield | develops x ray computed tomography |
| 1973 | Terje Lomo, Tim Bliss | hippocampal cells strengthened for days after rapid stimuli |
| 1973 | Candace Pert,Solomon Snyder | discover opioid receptors in brain |
| 1973 | Paul Berg | first recombinant DNA molecule |
| 1973 | Herbert Boyer, Stanley Cohen | invents gene cloning |
| 1973 | Konrad Z. Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, Karl von Frisch | discover imprinting in animals (=postnatal gene regulation) |
| 1974 | Alan Baddeley | working memory = moment-to-moment memory for executing complex behavior |
| 1974 | Thomas Nagel, John Searle | binding/NCC, subjectivity—what are the elements of subjective consciousness |
| 1974 | John Hughes,Hans Kosterlitz | discover enkephalin |
| 1974 | M.E.Phelps, E.J.Hoffman,M.M.Ter Pogossian | develop first PET scanner |
| 1974 | First NMR image (a mouse) is taken | |
| 1974 | Seymour Benzer | mutatogenic chemicals on drosophila, flies with defective gene for disposing of cAMP have no short-term memory |
| 1976 | Choh Hao Li,David Chung | describe beta endorphins |
| 1976 | Erwin Neher ,Bert Sakmann | invents the patch clamp, which can record from individual membrane channels |
| 1980 | Richard Morris | blocking NMDA blocks longterm potentiation--shows how a short-term transmitter can affect longterm neural activity (memory) |
| 1980 | Gerald Klerman, Myran Weissman | develops interpersonal psychotherapy = CBT for mistaken beliefs about others |
| 1981 | Roger Wolcott Sperry | shows how sense data is filled out by brain, by observing patients with split hemispheres |
| 1982 | Bengt Ingemar Bergstrom, John Robert Vane, Sune K. Bergstrom | discovers of prostaglandins |
| 1983 | Benjamin Libet | discovers readiness potential in EEG 1 second before movement, 200 ms before “willing” |
| 1987 | Larry Squire, Daniel Schacter | describes how implicit/procedural (conditioning motor skills) versus explicit/declarative memory are recorded by different modules of the brain |
| 1987 | Gerald Edelman | proposes that consciousness is widely distributed throughout the cortex and thalamus |
| 1987 | Eli Lilly | prozac introduced as treatment for depression |
| 1989 | Colin McGinn | proposes that consciousness cannot be studied by limited mind |
| 1990 | Thomas Ebert | discovers that musicans' cortical finger maps expand 5-fold |
| 1990 | Crick and Koch | proposes neural correlates of consciousness, perhaps claustrum |
| 1990 | Michael Merzenich | discovers that cortical maps vary among monkeys and expands with use |
| 1990 | Eric Lumer | describes binocular rivalry-- the prefrontal and posterior pariental regions of the cortex seem to relay the decision regarding which image is to be enhanced to the visual system, which then brings the image into consciousness |
| 1992 | Craig Bailey | discovers long-term memory in aplysia based on new axon terminals |
| 1992 | Daniel Dennett | proposes that consciousness is function of neural computation, nothing else |
| 1994 | Alfred G. Gilman,Martin Rodbell | discovers G protein coupled receptors, key part of nerve signalling and memory |
| 1996 | Lewis Baxter, Jeffrey Schwartz | proves CBT for OCD=SSRI=inhibit caudate; psychotherapy for depression=SSRI=shift in activity from dorsal to ventral PFC |
| 1996 | Anthony Movshon, William Newsome | performs single cell recordings from behaving and attentive monkeys -- reveals consciousness on a cellular level |
| 1999 | Patricia Goldman-Rakic | finds that removing monkey PFC destroys working (not all short-term) memory |
| 2004 | Rene Hen | mouse dentate gyrus lesion abolishes effect of antidepressants |
Note:This timeline is based on Kandel's summary, plus this timeline and other web sources. Obviously the two last entries do not begin to suggest the huge explosion of research in the last 10 years. The timeline as a whole leans toward Kandel's interest in memory.
The timeline is almost all white males from a few Western nations, comprising an exclusive old-boy network. Kandel describes this vividly in his book. His career, in fact, probably coincides with the peak of the old-boy system.
This system is phasing out for several reasons--the PC/Internet Revolution, China, the changing nature of science itself. Most discoveries of the past were made by men puttering around with tangible equipment such as microscopes. Future research will be done by software; what human involvement remains will be spread among a global network of researchers from private enterprise as well as university labs--as well as late-night hackers. The age of the lone researcher who stumbles almost randomly into a celebrated place in scientific history is over.
Thankfully, the age of unethical and crude experimentation on animals and the mentally ill is also phasing out. Kandel describes how one of the seminal anatomical texts was based on dissections of Holocaust victims. The entirety of brain research history, though including some of the most fascinating and profound revelations about the nature of human experience, is a ghastly and chaotic tale of dissections and intoxications and horrifying injuries. The future may not provide such a riveting story, but it will be fundamentally better in almost every respect.
As Kandel told an interviewer in 2004, looking back on his career, "We've had a wonderful run on cellular molecular biology. The time has now come to use more synthetic approaches."
| date | "ism" | VIP | structures | methods | |
| -500-1853 | humoralism | Galen | 4 humors: black bile - yellow bile -phlegm - blood | wild speculation | |
| 1858-1900s | structuralism | Wundt (father of psychology) | 3 elements: sensation -affection-perception | semi-controlled introspection | |
| 1903-1950s | behaviorism | Pavlov | stimulus-->response | controlled animal studies | |
| 1900-1960s | Freudianism | Freud | 3 divisions: ego - id - superego | semi-controlled talk therapy | |
| 1950-1980s | humanism | Maslow | 5 needs: physiological-->safety-->love-->esteem-->self-actualization | " " (more sensitive, respectful; less dogmatic) | |
| 1960-2000s | cognitivism | Beck | 3 modalities: cognition-->emotion-->behavior | controlled human studies | |
| 1980-2000s | computationalism | Minsky | 3 quantities: input-->nodes-->output | highly controlled simulations, AI |
Treatments:
| date | treatment | methods | |||
| 1247 | institutionalized psychiatry (Bedlam=first asylum, London) | confinement, restraint, lobotomy, electroshock, insulin shock | |||
| 1900 | psychoanalysis | talk therapy | |||
| 1950 | psychopharmacology | drugs | |||
| 1960s | specific therapies | cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal therapy, music therapy, etc. | |||
Note: Although cognitive and computational neuroscience have gradually become more rigorous and falsifiable, and psychiatry has moved towards short-term, empirically based specific therapies, all psychological theories and treatments are essentially reductionistic and their purported "elements" and "structures" are all vulnerable to criticism on the basis of the distributed, emergent, and holistic nature of the brain and mind. In general psychiatry is a grand reification "signifying nothing" and is widely assumed to be gradually yielding to more empirical neurology, perhaps as a subspecialty, "neuropsychiatry."